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STUDIES  ON   THE    SANITATION   OF 
SWIMMING  POOLS 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the  Degree  of  Doctor 
of  Philosophy,  in  the  Faculty  of  Pure  Science,  Columbia  University. 


WALLACE    A.     MANHEIMER 


Reprinted  from 
The  Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  Vol.  15,  No.  1,  July,  1914,  pp.  159-186 


Studies  on  the  Sanitation  of  Swim- 
ming Pools 


WALLACE     A.     MANHEIMER 


Reprinted  from 
The  Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  Vol.  15,  No.  1,  July,  1914,  pp.  159-186 


CHICAGO 


~R  /Vtofc 


(jJV" 


STUDIES  ON  THE  SANITATION  OF  SWIMMING  POOLS 
Wallace    A.    Manheimer. 

(From  the  Laboratory  of  the  Department  of  Bacteriology,  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
Columbia  University,  New  York.) 

The  present  investigation  was  undertaken  to  inquire  into  the  sani- 
tary conditions  existing  in  swimming  pools,  and  to  study  methods  of 
improving  these  pools  if  defective,  without  altering  too  greatly  their 
equipments  or  modes  of  administration.  In  addition  to  this,  it  has 
been  our  purpose  to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible,  standards  in 
construction,  equipment,  and  management  which  we  think  should  be 
required  of  such  establishments  in  the  future. 

The  problem  of  the  sanitary  swimming  pool  has  assumed  consider- 
able importance.  The  dangers  of  bathing  in  polluted  water  have 
been  pointed  out  by  many  authors,  and  numerous  plans  for  over- 
coming these  dangers  have  been  suggested.  Many  municipalities 
have  established  public  baths  and  swimming  pools.  Swimming  pools 
have  been  installed  by  private  individuals,  as  well  as  by  colleges  and 
universities,  secondary  and  elementary  schools,  clubs,  steamship  com- 
panies, and  Turkish  and  Russian  bathing  establishments.  National 
and  international  associations1  have  been  formed,  to  promote  the  move- 
ment. The  increased  interest  taken  in  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
pools  is  an  indication  of  their  growing  popularity,  and  therefore  of 
the  practical  importance  of  the  subject. 

That  the  swimming  pool  is  actually  a  medium  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  disease,  has  been  well  pointed  out  by  Atkin2  who  divides 
diseases  communicable  from  pool  into  three  classes:  (1),  intestinal, 
(2)  eye  and  ear,  and  (3)  venereal.  We  follow  his  classification  in 
the  succeeding  paragraphs. 

1.  Intestinal  infections. — Jager3  reported  the  occurrence  of  an  intestinal 
proteus  infection  among  ten  soldiers  in  the  garrison  of  Ulmer,  who  had  bathed 
in  the  river  Danube.  Two  of  the  patients  died.  The  infection  was  traced  to 
an  epidemic  of  fowl  disease  in  a  village  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Danube, 
a  short  distance  above  the  place  where  the  soldiers  had  bathed.    Jager  found 

1.  The  American  and  The  International  Association  for  Promoting  Hygiene  and  Public 
Baths. 

2.  Proc.  III.   Water  Supply  Assoc,  1911,  3,  p.  73. 

3.  Ztschr.  f.  Hyg.  u.  Infecti-onskrankh.,  1892,  12,  p.  525. 


4  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

the  bacilli  in  the  water  of  this  tributary,  in  the  feces  of  the  patients,  and  in 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  fowls. 

Drescher4  isolated  a  type  of  proteus  bacillus  from  the  water  and  from  the 
feces  of  the  patients  during  an  epidemic  among  38  soldiers  who  had  bathed  in 
the  Neise.  After  the  bathing  in  this  river  had  been  stopped  the  epidemic 
subsided. 

Pfuhl"  attributed  49  cases  of  typhoid  fever  to  bathing  in  the  Elbe  at  Altona. 
Lenhartz0  gave  an  account  of  a  case  of  typhoid  fever  in  a  man  who  had  fallen 
into  the  Elbe  and  swallowed  considerable  water.  Klein  and  Schiitz7  reported 
cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  6  soldiers  who  had  bathed  in  water  close  to  the  mouth 
of  a  city  drainage  canal.  In  the  discussion  of  a  paper  by  Maier,8  Dr.  Reece 
reported  the  occurrence  of  34  cases  of  enteric  fever  among  soldiers  who  had 
bathed  in  a  swimming  pool  which  derived  its  water  from  a  sewage-polluted 
river.  About  10  per  cent  of  the  men  using  the  pool  became  infected,  while  only 
one  case  developed  among  those  who  did  not  use  the  pool.  The  epidemic  ceased 
when  bathing  in  the  pool  was  discontinued. 

In  Japan,  Shiga  investigated  an  epidemic  of  413  cases  of  dysentery  in  the 
village  of  Mitaknura.  Near  the  town  was  a  river  in  which  bathing  had  been 
prohibited.  When  this  restriction  was  removed,  hundreds  of  persons  went 
swimming,  and  within  four  days  the  epidemic  broke  out.  It  was  found  that 
the  ciothes  and  bedding  of  a  person,  who  had  died  of  the  disease,  had  been 
washed  in  the  water  of  the  stream  a  short  distance  above  the  village.  Shiga 
concluded  that  the  epidemic  was  due  to  the  ingestion  of  the  river  water  by 
bathers. 

Shafer,9  Witte,10  Kirchner,11  Hartog,12  Bassin,13  Baginsky,14  and  others  have 
further  advanced  presumptive  evidence  that  intestinal  diseases  can  result  from 
bathing  in  polluted  water. 

2.  Eye  and  ear  injections. — Fehr15  tells  of  20  cases  of  eye  infection  among 
patrons  of  a  public  swimming  pool,  and  in  one  case  reinfection  occurred  as 
a  result  of  subsequent  swimming  in  the  same  pool.  Schultz13  reported  18  cases 
of  trachoma  among  the  young  men  who  had  used  a  public  swimming  pool 
which  had  been  contaminated  by  an  attendant  who  had  sore  eyes.  Cobb17 
reported  two  cases  of  ear  infection  from  the  use  of  a  swimming  pool.  In  one 
case  the  boy  was  infected  three  consecutive  times  from  the  same  pool. 

3.  Venereal  diseases. — Hertzka18  and  Sticker19  have  demonstrated  that  B. 
prodigiosus  can  pass  into  the  vagina  of  women  while  swimming.  Skutch20  has 
reported  an  epidemic  of  gonorrheal  vulvovaginitis  which  spread  to  236  girls 
in  a  school  at  Posen.    They  had  all  used  the  same  swimming  pool,  but  not  the 

4.  Sanitatsber.  iiber  d.  kgl.  Preuss.  Armee,  1898. 

5.  Deutsche  Mil.   IVchnschr.,    1888,    17,  p.  9. 

6.  Miinchen.  med.   Wchnschr.,   1892,  6,  p.   898. 

7.  Wien.  med.  Wchnschr.,  1898,  6,  p.  238. 

8.  Proc.  Roy.  Med.  and  Chir.  Soc,  London,  1908,  2,  p.  227. 

9.  Deutsche  Mil.   Wchnschr.,  1890,  36,  p.  39. 

10.  Sanitatsber.  iiber  d.  kgl.  Preuss.  Armee,  1898. 

11.  Deutsche  Mil.   Wchnschr.,  1888,  17,  p.  95. 

12.  Sanitatsber.  iiber  d.   kgl.  Preuss.  Armee,  1897. 

13.  Ibid.,  1896. 

14.  Hyg.  Rundschau,  1896,  6,  p.  597. 

15.  Berl.  klin.   Wchnschr.,   1900,  1,  p.  37. 

16.  Ibid.,   1899,   39,  p.   36. 

17.  Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  1908,  159,  p.  9. 

18.  Monatschr.  f.  Geburtsh.  u.  Gynak.,  1902,  16,  p.  3. 

19.  Ztschr.  f.  Geburtsh.  u.  Gynak.,  1901,  45,  p.  510. 

20.  Centralbl.  f.  Bakteriol.,  1892,  12,  p.   309. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  5 

same  towels,  soap,  etc.  Rosenau  states :  "Gonorrhea  is  usually  transmitted  by 
sexual  congress;  however,  accidental  or  innocent  infections  are  not  infrequent." 
Paul  Bending"1  reports  the  case  of  40  girls  sent  for  convalescence  to  a  brine 
bath,  15  showed  signs  of  gonorrhea  after  the  return.  The  infection  came  from 
an  8-year-old  girl,  who  apparently  had  been  suffering  from  gonorrhea  for 
several  years,  and  the  disease  was  spread  through  indiscriminate  bathing  in 
one  bath-tub  and  the  use  of  the  same  bath  towel. 

That  swimming  pools  can  transmit  disease,  then,  has  been  actually  demon- 
strated. When,  therefore,  the  use  of  the  swimming  pool  is  made  compulsory, 
as  it  is,  for  example,  in  secondary  schools  in  New  York  state,  it  would  seem 
just  that  the  authorities  imposing  this  condition,  be  compelled  to  exercise  sani- 
tary supervision,  and  be  held  responsible  for  accidental  infections  traceable  to 
defective  sanitary  management. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   ANALYSIS    FOR    INTESTINAL   BACTERIA 

The  final  decision  concerning  the  sanitary  condition  of  a  swimming 
pool  must  be  based  upon  bacteriological  examinations.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  water  is  practically  of  no  significance,  since  it  may  be 
clouded  by  organic  or  inorganic  matter  in  suspension.  In  our  own 
investigations,  pools  that  were  dirty  in  appearance  were  often  found 
to  be  relatively  free  from  bacteria,  and  vice  versa.  Atkin22  and  Man- 
heimer23  have  pointed  out  that  chemical  analysis  alone  is  of  no  value 
in  determining  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  swimming  pool  water, 
since  the  large  quantity  of  organic  matter  added  by  each  swimmer 
makes  the  interpretation  of  the  analysis  difficult.  Unlike  the  chemical 
analysis  of  drinking  water,  in  which  such  analyses  may  be  of  consid- 
erable importance,  it  is  worthless  in  the  case  of  water  of  swimming 
pools.  Bacteriological  investigation  therefore  remains  the  only  reliable 
index. 

A  review  of  the  literature  indicates  that  the  most  important  diseases  trans- 
mitted through  the  agency  of  the  swimming  pool  are  those  which  affect  the 
intestinal  canal.  Typhoid  fever  and  diarrheal  conditions  attributed  to  B. 
proteus  and  some  other  bacteria  have  been  traced  to  swimming  pool  infection 
on  reasonably  reliable  evidence.  This  being  the  case,  the  examination  of  the 
swimming  pool  water  for  colon  bacilli  as  an  index  of  pollution  becomes  as 
logical  a  method  of  control  as  it  does  in  the  control  of  drinking  water. 

Colon  bacilli  are  usually  absent  in  1  c.c.  of  drinking  water  in  and  about 
New  York  City.  This  fact  has  been  established  by  the  repeated  routine  analyses 
of  the  Department  of  Water  Supply,  Gas,  and  Electricity,  as  well  as  by  our 
own  examinations,  and,  on  the  basis  of  such  measurements,  comparative  exami- 
nations of  the  swimming  pool  waters  may  easily  serve  to  determine  the  degree 
of  pollution. 

In  New  York  City  the  question  of  typhoid  fever  assumes  especial  impor- 
tance  since   the   disease   seems   to  be   endemic.     Jackson   in  his   report  to  the 

21.  Miinchen.  med.  Wchnschr.,  1909,  56,  p.  1864. 

22.  Proc.   III.   Water  Supply  Assoc,   1911,   3,  p.   73. 

23.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,  1912,  17,  p.  669. 


6  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

Merchants'  Association  of  New  York21  attributes  this  to  the  fact  that  the 
tides  are  not  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  away  the  solid  masses  of  sewage,  and, 
in  consequence,  masses  of  human  excreta  accumulate  along  the  shores  when 
the  tide  falls.  In  summer  these  are  covered  with  flies  and  form  a  constant 
menace.  The  report  of  the  Metropolitan  Sewage  .  Commission25  also  largely 
attributed  the  prevalence  of  typhoid  fever  to  the  vast  quantity  of  sewage- 
polluted  water  that  surrounds  the  city.  Altho  this  condition  may  account 
for  some  of  the  cases,  the  pollution  of  swimming  pools  by  typhoid  carriers 
must  be  looked  upon  as  a  constant  and  important  danger.  That  the  typhoid 
carrier  state  is  not  as  uncommon  as  was  formerly  supposed  is  evident  from 
the  numerous  studies  recently  made.  Since  it  would  be  hopeless  for  technical 
reasons  (here,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  drinking  water)  to  rely  upon  the  actual 
determination  of  typhoid  bacilli  themselves,  the  general  index  of  pollution 
furnished  by  the  colon  test  seems  to  offer  the  best  means  of  controlling  pollu- 
tion. Unlike  drinking  water,  in  this  case  we  can  definitely  exclude  contamina- 
tion from  any  but  a  human  source.  This  exclusion  increases  the  value  of  the 
examination,  and  standards  of  safety  can  be  established. 

Formerly,  most  of  the  endemic  typhoid  fever  was  attributed  to  the  inges- 
tion of  polluted  water.  At  the  present  time,  it  appears  that  the  disease  remains 
endemic  largely  because  of  the  constant  foci  of  infection  supplied  by  tempor- 
ary and  permanent  bacillus  carriers.  Russell20  states :  "In  the  southwestern 
part  of  Germany  many  bacillus  carriers  have  been  found,  and  the  authorities 
have,  at  present,  about  three  hundred  of  such  persons  under  observation.  Many, 
after  a  time,  cease  to  be  carriers,  but  new  ones  are  continually  being  discovered, 
and  so  the  number  remains  constantly  high."  Rosenau  states  that  4  per  cent 
of  all  typhoid  fever  patients  continue  to  discharge  typhoid  bacilli  in  the  urine 
or  feces,  during  and  after  convalescence.  Albert  states  that  25  per  cent  of  all 
chronic  typhoid  carriers  have  never  had  typhoid  fever,  and  further  estimates 
that  1  in  every  1,000  of  the  general  population  is  a  carrier. 

The  very  thorough  studies  of  Rosenau,  Lumsden  and  Kastle,27  and  of  Lums- 
den  and  Anderson28  on  the  role  played  by  bacillus  carriers  in  the  spread  of 
typhoid  infection  in  the  city  of  Washington,  deserve  especial  attention.  In 
1908  these  investigators  examined  the  feces  of  a  thousand  different  persons  in 
apparently  good  health,  or  with  maladies  not  suggesting  typhoid  fever.  The 
results  of  their  examinations  indicated  that  0.3  per  cent  of  the  general  popula- 
tion of  Washington  became  temporary  typhoid  bacillus  carriers.  In  their  search 
for  chronic  bacillus  carriers,  they  examined  307  specimens  of  urine  and  feces 
of  persons  who  had  had  the  disease,  and  found  that  8,  or  2.8  per  cent  of 
these  individuals  were  discharging  typhoid  bacilli.  When  one  considers  the 
difficulty  of  isolating  typhoid  bacilli  from  feces,  and  also  the  fact  that  carriers 
sometimes  fail  to  discharge  bacilli  for  considerable  lengths  of  time,  the  estima- 
tion of  the  Washington  investigators  must  be  considered  extremely  conserva- 
tive. In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  mention  Park's  interesting  case  of  "Typhoid 
Mary"29  who  infected  twenty-six  persons,  some  fatally,  with  typhoid  fever. , 
Bolduan  and  Noble30  report  the  case  of  a  dairyman  who  unwittingly  dissemin- 

24.  Merchants'  Assoc,  of  N.  Y.,  1909. 

25.  Rept.  Metropol.  Sewage  Com.  N.   Y.  City,   1908. 

26.  Mil.  Surgeon,   1909,  24,  p.  53. 

27.  Bull.  Hyg.  Lab.,   U.  S.  P.  H.  S.,  1909,  No.  53. 

28.  Ibid.,  1911,  78. 

29.  Pathologic  Bacteria  and  Protozoa. 

30.  Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.,  1912,  58,  p.  7. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  7 

ated  typhoid  germs   for  forty-eight  years.     The  literature  of  this  subject  has 
been  fully  reviewed  by  Ledingham31  and  Grimm.3" 

The  connection  of  the  foregoing  considerations  to  the  problem  of  the  sanita- 
tion of  the  swimming  pools  is  clear,  and  renders  the  determination  of  the  degree 
of  pollution  by  organisms  that  produce  intestinal  infections  a  matter  of  great 
importance. 

LITERATURE   AND    FACTORS    OF    IMPORTANCE    IN    SWIMMING    POOL 

SANITATION 

The  literature  on  swimming  pools  is  not  very  extensive.  More- 
over, the  points  of  view  from  which  pool  sanitation  has  been  studied 
are  so  various  that  we  can  best  survey  the  work  that  has  been  done 
by  classifying  it  according  to  the  particular  features  of  this  problem 
with  which  each  writer  has  concerned  himself.  The  factors  involved 
in  the  control  of  swimming  pools  consist  of :  ( 1 )  construction  and 
equipment,  (2)  attention  to  the  source  of  water,  (3)  management  of 
the  water,  i.e.,  filtration  and  refiltration,  etc.,  (4)  chemical  disinfection, 
and  (5)  administration.  Judgment  of  the  efficiency  of  any  or  all 
of  these  factors  can  be  formed  only  by  (6)  bacteriological  control 
which,  therefore,  we  classify  as  a  sixth  important  feature  in  sanitary 
management. 

1.  Construction  and  equipment. — Only  brief  mention  of  the  structural  fea- 
tures of  swimming  pools  can  be  made  in  this  paper.  However,  the  details  of 
construction  are  as  essential  to  the  sanitary  efficiency  as  chemical  treatment  of 
the  water  or  any  other  sanitary  measure.  Without  entering  at  length  into  this 
subject  we  may  summarize  the  chief  sanitary  features  of  construction  and 
equipment  of  swimming  pools  as  follows :  the  smoothness  of  the  lining,  lack 
of  obstructions  in  the  water,  the  presence  of  a  combination  of  surface-over- 
flows and  life  rails,  adequate  shower-bath  and  toilet  facilities,  and  an  efficient 
filtration  plant. 

2.  Attention  to  the  source  of  water. — It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  original 
water  must  be  pure  in  a  sanitary  swimming  pool.  Manheimer33  has  shown  that 
the  water  used  in  many  out-of-town  pools  was  of  very  poor  quality.  The  sum- 
mary of  his  results :  number  of  pools  using  city  and  town  supplies,  22 ;  well 
water,  5 ;  lake  water,  4 ;  river  water,  2 ;  creek  water,  2.  The  lake,  river  and 
creek  waters  used,  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  sewage,  while  in  two 
cases  the  State  Department  of  Health  had  condemned  the  town  supplies. 

3.  Management  of  the  water. — Refillings. — Earlier  writers,  as  Edel,3*  Hesse,35 
and  others30  have  dwelt  on  the  importance  of  frequent  refillings.  Manheimer37 
has  more  recently  found  that  there  is  no  direct  relation  between  the  number 

31.  Rept.  of  Local  Gov.  Bd.  of  Eng.  and  Wales,  1909,  38,  p.  82. 

32.  Pub.   Health  Repts.,   1911,  Washington,   26,  p.   313. 

33.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,  1912,  17,  p.  669. 

34.  Arch.  f.   Hyg.,    1893,    19,   p.   225. 

35.  Ztschr.   f.  Hyg.   u.   Infectionskrankh.,  1897,  25,  p.   482. 

36.  Hyg.   Rundschau,    1908,   18,   1391. 

37.  Am.   Phy.   Ed.   Rev.,   1912,   17,  p.   669. 


8  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

of  weekly  refillings  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  water  of  a  swimming 
pool. 

Dilution. — Manheimer35  has  reported  upon  the  effects  of  dilution  in  several 
pools.  It  appears  that  dilution  of  the  water  of  a  swimming  pool  is  efficient, 
tho  expensive. 

Refiltration. — Schwartz39  in  1905,  was  the  first  to  investigate  the  refiltration 
of  pool  water.  Kister  and  Fromme40  highly  advocated  refiltration,  and  in  addition 
to  this,  advised  refillings  every  three  weeks,  with  also  the  addition  of  consider- 
able amounts  of  dilution  water.  Angel41  in  a  paper  read  in  1908,  concluded 
that  refiltration  improved  the  appearance  and  bacteriological  condition  of  the 
water,  and  also  reduced  the  cost  of  maintenance.  Crane41  and  Manheimer43 
both  recommended  refiltration  when  combined  with  other  methods. 

4.  Chemical  disinfection. — Methods  similar  to  those  proposed  for  the  puri- 
fication of  drinking  water  have  been  suggested  for  the  chemical  disinfection  of 
the  water  of  swimming  pools.  The  first  attempt  in  this  direction  was  that  of 
Stokes44  who  used  copper  sulphate  to  purify  a  Baltimore  swimming  tank  and 
obtained  destruction  of  bacteria  and  algae  using  1  part  of  copper  sulphate  to 
100,000  parts  of  water.  Alexander45  reported  satisfactory  results  from  the 
use  of  magnesium  hypochlorite  derived  by  electrolysis  from  a  chemical  con- 
taining magnesium  chlorid.  All  other  writers  on  this  subject  have  recom- 
mended the  use  of  calcium  hypochlorite.40  Burrage,  in  1909  at  Purdue  Univer- 
sity, made  careful  analyses  of  the  bacterial  condition  of  the  water  before  and 
after  disinfection  with  calcium  hypochlorite.  Following  the  recommendations 
formulated  for  the  disinfection  of  drinking  water  by  Woodhead47  and  others48 
he  used  one  part  of  available  chlorin49  to  one  million  parts  of  water.  The 
counts,  which  averaged  about  100,000  bacteria  per  c.c,  were  reduced  by  this 
means  to  between  0  and  26  per  c.c.  Bunker50  in  1910,  showed  that  with  one  part 
of  available  chlorin  to  a  million  parts  of  water,  sterilization  was  effected  in 
IS  minutes.     Atkin51  in  1911,  was  successful  when  using  1   part  of  chlorin  to 

38.  Ibid. 

39.  Gsndhts  Ingenieur,   1910,  30,  p.  30. 

40.  Ibid. 

41.  Assn.  Mun.  and  County  Eng.,   1908,  34,  p.  960. 

42.  Eng.  List,  1912,  21,  pp.  11,  43.     Proc.  Am.  Assn.,  Promote  Hyg.  and  Pub.  Baths,  1913. 

43.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,  1912,  17,  p.  669. 

44.  Am.  Med.,   1905,   10,  p.   1075. 

45.  Scient.  Am.  Supp.,  1909,  68,  p.  1765. 

46.  The  following  are  some  of  the  cities  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  that  use 
calcium  hypochlorite  for  the  purification  of  the  drinking  water :  New  York  City,  Jersey  City, 
Council  Bluffs,  Brainerd,  Erie,  Montreal,  Milwaukee,  Cleveland,  Ridgewood,  Corning,  Omaha, 
Nashville,  Grand  Rapids,  Little  Falls,  Harrison,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Toronto,  Niagara 
Falls,   Minneapolis,  Pittsburgh,  Rahway,  Hackensack,   Ottumwa,  etc.      (Hooker). 

47.  Jour.  Roy.  San.  Inst.,  1910,  31,  p.  281. 

48.  Ztschr.  f.  Hyg.  u.  Infectionskrankh.,  1895,  20,  p.  227.  Lancet,  '  London,  1908,  2, 
p.  1597.  Pub.  Health,  London,  1909,  23,  p.  350.  Ztschr.  f.  Hyg.  u.  Infectionskrankh., 
1894,   16,  p.    149. 

49.  CaOClo,  calcium  oxychlorid,  is  generally  accepted  to  be  the  essential  constituents  of 
dry  chlorid  of  lime.  It  is  soluble  in  about  twenty  times  its  weight  of  water,  leaving  a  small 
insoluble  residue,  mostly  calcium  hydroxid:  In  an  aqueous  solution,  calcium  hypochlorite 
forms  the  only  valuable  constituent,  the  calcium  chlorid  being  inert  and  valueless.  The 
reaction   in  water   is  2CaO.Cl2=CaCl2+Ca(OCl)2    (calcium   hypochlorite). 

From  solution  of  hypochlorites,  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  water  will  liberate  free 
hypochlorous  acid  (Ca(OCl)2+H2C03=2HOCl+CaC03) ;  the  hypochlorous  acid  is  the  active 
oxidizing  agent.  It  is  clear  from  this,  that  the  term  "parts  of  available  chlorin"  is  an  expres- 
sion used  merely  for  convenience,  and  does  not  refer  in  any  sense  to  the  chemical  reaction. 

50.  Am.  Jour.  Publ.  Health,  1910,  20. 

51.  Proc.  III.   Water  Supply  Assoc,  1911,  3,  p.  73. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  9 

a  1,000,000  parts  of  water,  but  found  that  the  effect  of  the  hypochlorite  was 
unsatisfactory  when  0.5  part  was  used.  Whipple,62  Lewis,53  Rettger  and  Markley,54 
Lyster,65  Tully,56  The  Engineering  Record  (unsigned),57  Manheimer,58  Ravenel,59 
Markley,"0  Bunker  and  Whipple,61  all  have  recommended  the  use  of  calcium 
hypochlorite  for  swimming  pool  disinfection  on  the  basis  of  tests  of  its  effi- 
ciency. More  recently  Buswell62  in  1913,  following  the  work  of  Darnall,63  sug- 
gests the  use  of  anhydrous  chlorin04  as  being  more  effective  for  bacterial  destruc- 
tion, easier  of  application  in  the  pool  he  examined,  and  more  constant  in  compo- 
sition than  calcium  hypochlorite.  He  objects  to  the  hypochlorite  chiefly  because 
of  lack  of  constancy  in  composition. 

5. — Administration. — Manheimer05  has  compared  the  sanitary  condition  of 
several  pools  that  were  operated  in  about  the  same  manner,  and  had  approxi- 
mately the  same  cubic  capacities.  He  found  that  the  administration  of  the 
pool,  the  supervision  of  the  working  force,  the  inspection  of  the  bathers  before 
entering  the  water,  and  their  instruction  in  pool  sanitation  were  the  most  impor- 
tant agencies  in  keeping  the  bacterial  counts  low. 

To  complete  the  review  of  the  literature  of  this  subject,  it  is  well  to  men- 
tion the  papers  of  Roberts  and  Porter.  Roberts,60  besides  urging  the  use  of 
calcium  hypochlorite,  suggests  the  use  of  isotonic  salt  solution  instead  of  com- 
mon water  for  tanks,  as  the  solution  is  less  irritating  to  the  mucuous  mem- 
branes. He  also  suggests  a  circulating  pump  to  insure  the  immediate  distribu- 
tion of  added  germs.  Porter67  confines  himself  in  his  paper  to  a  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  dangers  associated  with  unsanitary  pools,  without  considering 
recommendations  for  their  control.  A  large  part  of  his  interesting  communica- 
tion relates  to  the  "Kosher"  baths  used  by  the  poorer  class  of  Jewish  people 
on  the  lower  East  Side  of  New  York  City.  At  his  suggestion  this  investigation 
was  taken  up  by  us,  and  Porter's  results  will  be  discussed  below. 

PLAN    OF    STUDY 

Our  own  plan  of  investigation  consisted  in  making  periodical  bac- 
teriological examinations  of  a  considerable  number  of  pools  and 
Mikveh  baths,  attempting  to  find  methods  of  operation  that  might  be 
applied  to  the  sanitary  management  of  swimming  pools  in  general.  In 
addition  to  this,  it  has  been  our  aim  to  correct  individual  procedures 
where  these  have  been  found  faulty. 

52.  Mun.  Jour,   and  Engin.,   1911,  31,  p.  577. 

53.  Eng.  News,   1911,  65,  p.  636. 

54.  Ibid.,   66,  p.  699. 

55.  Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.,   1911,  57,  p.  1992. 

56.  Am.  Jour.  Pub.  Health,   1912,  11,  p.  1186. 

57.  Engineer  Rec,   1912,  65,  p.  699. 

59.  Ibid.,   p.  684. 

58.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,   1912,  17,  p.  669. 

60.  Ibid.,   1913. 

61.  Ibid.,   p.  75. 

62.  Ibid.,   p.  395. 

63.  Jour.  Am.  Pub.  Health  Assn.,  1911,  17,  p.   78. 

64.  Anhydrous  chlorin  sterilizes  by  means  of  its  nascent  chlorin,  whereas,  chlorid  of 
lime  acts  by  means  of  the  nascent  oxygen  liberated  from  hypochlorous  acid.  (See  footnote 
above.) 

65.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,   1912,  17,  p.  669. 

66.  Eng.  News,   1912,  67,  p.   73. 

67.  Survey,   1912,  28,  p.   588. 


10  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

Technic  of  Bacterial  Water  Analysis 
Collection  of  samples. — Samples  were  collected  from  the  surface,  middle- 
depth,  and  bottom  of  the  pools,  except  in  cases  mentioned  in  the  text.  The  col- 
lection of  these  samples  was  always  from  the  deep  end  of  the  pool.  A  weighted 
bottle  (Abbott)  was  used  for  the  collection  of  bottom  and  mid-depth  samples, 
and  a  glass-stoppered  one  held  by  means  of  a  bent  wire  for  surface  collec- 
tions. 

The  tops  of  all  bottles  were  wrapped  in  stiff  brown  paper,  to  protect  the  necks 
and  lips  from  dust.  The  bottles  were  then  sterilized  in  the  hot  air  oven  for  one 
hour,  at  150°  C.  The  copper  wire  used  to  lower  the  weighted  bottle  was 
marked  off  in  feet,  therefore  the  mid-depth  of  the  pool  was  easily  found. 
When  the  bottom  samples  were  being  collected,  the  apparatus  was  lowered 
gently  till  it  touched  the  floor  of  the  pool,  then  raised  a  few  inches,  drawn  to  one 
side,  and  the  stopper  temporarily  lifted. 

During  transportation  of  the  samples,  ice-packing  was  ordinarily  not  needed, 
as  the  temperature  out-of-doors  was  sufficiently  cold  to  preclude  any  con- 
siderable change  in  the  samples.  Furthermore,  but  one  or  two  pools  were 
examined  at  a  time,  and  the  samples  reached  the  laboratory  within  30  or  40 
minutes  after  collection.  In  all  cases  when  more  than  two  sets  of  samples 
were  collected  on  one  trip  they  were  packed  in  ice. 

I.    Quantitative   Analysis 

Treatment  of  samples. — The  samples  were  plated  in  agar  and  gelatin,  counts 
for  colon  bacilli  were  made  in  Jackson's  peptone-lactose-bile  medium68  and  in 
thirteen  instances  qualitative  analyses  were  made  for  the  detection  of  typhoid 
bacilli.  In  the  results  of  a  few  preliminary  tests  it  was  found  that  the  proper 
dilution  of  pool  water  to  be  made  prior  to  implantation  was  1  to  10  and 
1  in  100,  using  normal  salt  solution  as  a  diluent.  In  the  "Kosher"  baths  on 
the  Lower  East  Side  of  New  York  City,  dilutions  were  made  in  various  degrees, 
from  1  in  10,  up  to  1  of  pool  water,  to  10,000  of  salt  solution,  as  the  pollution 
of  these  pools  was  found  to  be  exceedingly  high. 

In  order  to  have  the  error,  which  usually  attends  the  reading  of  pipets,  equal 
for  all  tests,  dilutions  were  so  made  that  1  c.c.  could  always  be  used  for 
implantation.  Few  dilution  tubes  were  made  at  one  time,  so  that  the  volume 
might  not  be  reduced  by  evaporation.  It  was  noticed  that  immediately  after 
sterilization  the  contents  of  the  tubes  had  diminished  slightly,  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  expulsion  of  dissolved  air.  The  bottoms  of  the  meniscuses  of  these 
tubes  were  therefore  marked  (prior  to  sterilization)  immediately  after  which 
they  were  placed  in  the  ice-box  until  used.  As  a  rule  these  tubes  resumed  their 
proper  volume  upon  warming  and  shaking,  but  frequently  several  had  to  be 
discarded. 

Plating. — When  plating,  1  c.c.  of  the  sample  or  its  dilution  was  added  directly 
to  the  plates,  the  standard  agar  or  gelatin  being  poured  over.  The  inversion  of 
the  agar  plates  was  effective  in  preventing  the  water  -of  condensation  from 
running  over  the  surface,  and  little  or  no  trouble  was  experienced  because  of 
surface  spreading.  Some  bacteria  cannot  withstand,  even  for  a  short  time, 
temperatures  above  45°  C,  therefore  in  order  not  to  destroy  any  of  these  more 
.delicate  organisms,  the  agar  and  gelatin  were  cooled  to  between  40°  and  45°  C. 

68.  Jour.  Infect.  Dis.,  1910,  7,  p.  587;  Ibid.,  1909,  6,  289;  Ibid.,  1911,  8,  p.  289;  Jour.  Ind. 
and  Eng.  Chem.,  1909,  1,  p.  328;  Jour.  Infect.  Dis.,  1907,  Supp.,  3,  p.  300;  Ibid.,  1911,  8, 
p.   241. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  11 

before  plating.  Duplicate  plates  were  poured  for  each  dilution,  and  several 
dilutions  were  made  for  each  sample.  When  any  wide  discrepancy  occurred 
between  counts  of  different  dilutions  for  the  same  sample,  the  test  was  discarded. 
In  selecting  the  final  count  to  be  recorded  in  the  table,  those  from  the  highest 
dilutions  were  used. 

II.    Quantitative   Analysis 

The  method  used  in  the  detection  of  colon  bacilli  in  water,  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  analysis,  varies  but  slightly  from  that  used  and 
described  before.69  Jackson's  lactose-peptone-bile  medium  was  prepared  and 
placed  in  fermentation  tubes,  which  were  given  fractional  sterilization  for  3 
days  in  the  autoclave  at  15  pounds  pressure,  instead  of  15  minutes  as  recom- 
mended. When  these  tubes  are  sterilized  in  the  autoclave,  their  contents  fre- 
quently boil  up,  wetting  the  cotton  plugs,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  lactose  is 
hydrolyzed  by  the  extreme  heat.  Five  tubes  and  sometimes  6  were  used  for 
each  sample.  To  each  of  the  first  two,  1  c.c.  of  the  pool  water,  and  to  each 
of  the  remaining  three,  1  c.c.  of  a  dilution,  were  added.  Twenty  per  cent  of 
gas  in  the  closed  arm  of  the  fermentation  tubes  was  considered  positive  for  the 
presence  of  colon  bacilli.  Many  tests  were  made  to  verify  this  fact,70  but  when 
there  was  the  slightest  doubt,  the  tubes  were  re-examined.  In  the  analysis  of 
the  inhibition  of  growth  due  to  temperatures  about  37°  C,  it  was  found  that 
very  little,  if  any,  inhibition  occurred  up  to  42.5°  C.  Therefore  a  separate  incu- 
bator was  run  at  42.5°  C.  and  all  colon  bacilli  and  typhoid  bacilli71  tests  were 
made  at  that  temperature.  Inasmuch  as  each  degree  above  37°  C.  exerts 
additional  inhibition  to  the  growth  of  "water  bacteria"  it  would  seem  that 
42.5°  C.  is  a  better  temperature  than  37.5°  C.  for  growth  in  all  tubes  for  quali- 
tative analysis. 

CLASSIFICATION    AND   ARRANGEMENT   OF    MATERIAL 

Of  all  the  factors  involved  in  the  sanitary  control  of  swimming 
pools,  construction  and  equipment,  source  of  water  supply,  etc.,  we 
have  selected  the  factor  of  administration  as  the  most  convenient  basis 
for  classification.  Accordingly  we  have  divided  pools  into  the  follow- 
ing classes:  (1)  collegiate  pools;  (2)  association  pools;  (3)  public 
pools;  (4)  free  floating  baths;  (5)  Mikveh  baths. 

I.    COLLEGIATE  POOLS 

The  following  three  pools  represent  the  most  interesting  and 
instructive  group  studied.  It  is  in  these  pools  that  most  of  the  experi- 
ments on  technic  and  management  have  been  worked  out,  and  in  their 
combined  application  an  almost  ideal  procedure  in  the  sanitary  man- 
agement of   swimming  pools   is    developed.       The     difficulties    here 

69.  Am.  Phy.  Ed.  Rev.,  1912,  17,  p.  669. 

70.  Ibid.,   28,  p.   588. 

71.  Careful  and  repeated  examinations  were  made,  by  methods  proved  efficient  in  control, 
to  isolate  typhoid  bacilli  from  the  various  pools.  Since  these  were  uniformly  negative  we 
will  omit  details. 


12 


Wallace  A.  Manheimer 


encountered  are  far  more  amenable  to  control  than  those  found  in 
any  other  group.72 

pool   1 

Water:.    Filtered   city  water.     Capacity,   50,000  gallons.     Total  water  used 
per  week,  200,000  gallons.     Cost  for  water,  $8.00  per  week. 

Management  of  water:     Pressure   filtration.     Dilution:    Pool  half   emptied 
each  day.     Entirely  emptied  twice  a  week,  at  which  time  thoroughly  scrubbed. 
Attendance :    800  per  week,  mainly  college  women,  with  a  few  elementary 
school  boys. 

Bacteriological   Examination 
A.     Quantitative  Analysis 


Tap  water  (control)  

Water  from  pool  before  use 

After  9  hours'  use  by  125  women 
After  30  hours'  use  by  250  women 
After  dilution  following  morning. . 

Evening  same  day    

Discussion:  Relatively  poor  results  for  amount  of  money  expended  in 
running  pool. 

POOL  2 

Water:  Filtered  city  water.  Capacity,  100,000  gallons.  Total  water  used 
per  week,  450,000  gallons.    Cost  of  water  per  week,  $14.00. 

Management  of  water:  v  Pressure  filtration.  Dilution :  Constant  stream  of 
warm  filtered  water  night  and  day,  equivalent  to  four  refillings  per  week.  Pool 
thoroughly  scrubbed  once  a  week. 

Attendance:     2,000  per  week,  mainly  college  men. 


B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C. 

Gelatin  20°  C. 

Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c. 

per  c.c. 

per  c.c. 

40 

400 

0 

70 

1,130 

0 

3,400 

Not  made 

Bet.  1-10 

12,500 

Not  made 

Bet.  1-10 

9,540 

45,790 

0 

6,000 

Not  made 

Bet.  1-10 

A. 


Bacteriological   Examination 
Quantitative  Analysis 


After  1  day's  use  by  400  men. 
After  2  days'  use  by  800  men. 
After  3  days'  use  by  1,200  men. 
After  4  days'  use  by  1,600  men. 

Test   oi 


Tap  water  (control) 

1  day's  attendance 0 

2  days'  attendance 0 

3  days'  attendance 0 

4  days'  attendance 0 


Efficiency 

Agar  37" 

per  c.c. 

13 

0 

20 

2 

160 


Agar  37°  C. 
per  c.c. 

300 

1,000 

3,000 

16,500 

of   Filter 


B.  Qualitative 
Analysis  for 
Colon  Bacilli 
per  c.c. 

0 

Bet.  1-10 

Irregularly  present 

Irregularly  present 


Gelatin  20°  C. 
per  c.c. 
192  Water  murky 
3 
10 

35  Water  murky 
280 


There  were  no  colon  bacilli  present  in  1  c.c.  in  any  of  the  samples. 


72.  All   bacteriological   tests    recorded   throughout   the   following   protocols   are  averages   of 
three  separate   determinations. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools 


13 


Discussion:  It  was  evident  that  the  pool  was  in  relatively  good  sanitary 
condition  considering  the  large  attendance.  The  filter,  however,  was  worked 
beyond  its  capacity  to  clarify  the  water.  It  should  be  operated,  therefore, 
more  slowly.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is  unnecessarily  high  and  can  be  reduced 
by  methods  described  below. 

POOL  3 

Water:  Filtered,  refiltered  city  water.  Capacity,  250,000  gallons.  Water 
used  for  one  or  two  months.     Cost  slight. 

Management  of  water:  Gravity  sand  filter,  used  for  filtration  and  for 
refiltration.  Anhydrous  chlorin  added  in  first  series  of  tests,  calcium  hypo- 
chlorite in  second.  Pool  filled  once  in  two  months,  depending  upon  the  results 
of  appropriate  tests. 

Bacteriological    Examination    with    Anhydrous    Chlorin 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.  Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  sample  (control)    20  60  0 

After    7  days'  use  by  1,800  men  A.  M.       5  540  0 

After  11  days'  use  by  2,100  men  P.  M.     50  600  0 

After    8  days'  use  by  2,100  men  A.  M.     50  290  0 

After  11  days'  use  by  2,400  men  P.  M.    60  520  0 

Test  from  filter 5  410  0 


Bacteriological   Examination    with    Calcium    Hypochlorite 


A.     Quantitative  Analysis 


After    7  days'  use  by  2,100  men, 
After  11  days'  use  by  3,300  men. , 


Agar  37°  C. 
per  c.c. 

800 
2,300 


B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c. 

0 

0 


Discussion:  The  water  was  in  excellent  condition  throughout  use. 
Anhydrous  chlorin  and  calcium  hypochlorite  were,  equally  efficient  in  reducing 
bacterial  pollution.  Refiltration  kept  water  so  clear  that  smallest  object  was 
discernible  on  the  floor  of  the  pool.  Cost  of  maintenance  greatly  reduced. 
Technic  of  this  pool  is  recommended. 

Summary 

The  three  preceding  pools  have  much  in  common :  they  are  all  collegiate 
pools  accommodating  an  intelligent  clientele,  they  are  well  directed,  and  all 
have  instructors  present  to  prevent  accidental  drowning,  and  to  insure  obedi- 
ence to  the  rules  of  cleanliness.  Pool  1  uses  plenty  of  water,  derived  from 
nightly  dilution  and  bi-weekly  fillings.  Pool  2  maintains  constant  dilution  night 
and  day.  Pool  3  retains  the  same  water  for  months,  but  refilters  and  disinfects 
with  chlorid  of  lime.  The  procedure  of  Pool  3  is  far  superior,  from  the  view 
points  of  appearance  of  the  water,  economy  of  control,  and  sanitary  condition. 
This  condition  was  obtained  by  chemical  disinfection  and  refiltration.  The  bac- 
terial condition  of  the  water  of  this  pool  closely  approximated  that  of  drinking 
water,  which,  after  all,  is  the  standard  that  should  be  set  for  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  swimming  pools. 


14  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

II.   ASSOCIATION   POOLS 

The  association  pools  are  managed  as  the  collegiate  pools  and 
accommodate  the  same  class  of  attendance.  By  charging  admission 
to  the  association,  they  insure  a  higher  and  cleaner  class  of  patrons 
than  the  public  pools  which  are  described  later.  The  technic  in  oper- 
ating the  different  association  pools  is  widely  dissimilar  and  therefore 
very  instructive.  Many  pools  were  examined  but  those  that  had  similar 
technic  and  sanitary  conditions  approximately  the  same,  have  been 
omitted.  The  pools  have  been  subclassified  according  to  the  number 
of  weekly  fillings. 

POOLS    FILLED   DAILY 
POOL  4 

Water:  Artesian  well,  not  filtered.  Capacity,  15,500  gallons.  Cost  for 
water  =  cost  for  pumping  and  heating. 

Management  of  water:    Daily  filling  and  cleaning. 
Attendance :    75  men  daily. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.    Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.              per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Test  of  well  water 4                       40  0 

After  day's  use  by  75  men 1,300                 31,800  0 

POOL  5 

Water:  Artesian  well,  not  filtered.  Capacity,  27,000  gallons.  Cost  of 
water  =  cost  for  pumping  and  heating. 

Management  of  water:     Daily  filling  and  cleaning. 
Attendance :    150  men  daily. 

Bacteriological   Examination 
A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 
Agar  37°  C.     Gelatin  20°  C.      Colon  Bacilli 
per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Test  of  well  water 8  60  0 

After  day's  use  by  150  men 200  4,100  0 

Discussion:  Daily  filling  is  satisfactory,  but  the  cost  of  operation  for  large 
pools  is  prohibitive.  Furthermore,  the  bacteriological  conditions  of  these  two 
pools  were  not  so  good  as  Pool  3,  which  depended  not  on  frequency  of  refill- 
ing, but  on  refiltration  and  chlorination. 

POOL  FILLED  THREE  TIMES  A  WEEK 
POOL  6 

Water:     Artesian  well,  not  filtered.     Capacity,  35,000  gallons. 
Management  of  water:    Pool  cleaned  three  times  a  week. 
Attendance:   250  men  per  week. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools 


15 


Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  E.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.  Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water  (control)   10  750  0 

After  day's  use  by  100  men 1,500  75,000  Bet.    1-  10 

A.  M.  of  second  day 69,960  154,540  Bet.    1-10 

After  2  days'  use  by  250  men 2,200  292,500  Bet.  10-100 

Discussion:  The  water  in  this  pool  was  considerably  polluted,  in  spite  of 
frequent  fillings.  Growth  of  bacteria  occurred  after  the  first  day's  use.  The 
growth  consisted  mainly  of  saprophytes  (gelatin  count  at  room  temperature) 
though  some  increase  is  indicated  in  the  bacteria  which  grow  at  incubator 
temperature.  The  increase  in  number  of  colon  bacilli  was  due  to  bathers  and 
not  to  growth.  The  sanitary  condition  of  this  pool  is  poor  and  should  be 
corrected  by  methods  indicated  elsewhere. 

POOL  FILLED  TWICE  A   WEEK 

POOL  7 
Water:     City,  filtered,  refiltered.     Capacity,  36,000  gallons. 
Management  of  water:    Refiltration.    No  chemical  added  to  water.    Cleaned 
twice  a  week. 

Attendance:    15  persons  per  week. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 
Agar  37°  C.     Gelatin  20°  C.      Colon  Bacilli 
per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water   (control)    52  197                      0 

Filtered  water  from  pool 26  254                       0 

After    9  hours' use  by    5  men 3,000  13,000                      0 

After  33  hours'  use  by  10  men 1,000  12,000                       0 

After  57  hours'  use  by  15  men 7,000  7,000                       0 

Pool  filled  every  10  days. 

After  7  days'  attendance 110  1 .300  Bet.  1-10 

After  8  days'  attendance 470  1.500                       0 

After  9  days'  attendance 800  280  Bet.  1-10 

Discussion:  The  sanitary  condition  was  fair,  but  could  have  been  made 
entirely  satisfactory  by  the  addition  of  calcium  hypochlorite.  It  is  clear  from 
these  tests  that  refiltration  alone  is  not  satisfactory  in  reducing  bacterial 
pollution,  although  it  is  effective  in  removing  much  of  the  suspended  matter. 

POOLS  FILLED  ONCE  A  WEEK 

POOL  8 
Water:    City  water,  not  filtered.    Capacity,  24,600  gallons. 
Management  of  water:    Pool  thoroughly  diluted  on  the  third  day  (Wednes- 
day).    Cleaned  once  a  week. 
Attendance:   450  men  per  week. 


16 


Wallace  A.  Manheimer 


Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.    Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.              per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water    (control) 150                      190  0 

After  1  day's  use  by    25  men 400                   1,600  0 

Before  3  days'  use 24,440                 11,440  0 

After  3  days'  use  by  125  men 3,000                   6,100  0 

Before  6  days'  use 200                   7,600  0 

After  6  days'  use  by  450  men 1,100                   7,600  Bet.  1-10 

Discussion:  There  was  a  gradual  increase  in  pollution  which  was  checked 
by  the  addition  of  the  diluted  water  after  the  third  day. 

POOL  9 
Water:    City,  filtered,  refiltered.    Capacity,  55,000  gallons. 
Management  of  water:      Constant   refiltration.     Constant   dilution.     Water 
from  pool  used  for  flushing  toilets,  urinals,  etc.,  fresh  water  usually  employed 
for  this  purpose  added  to  pool  instead.    145,000  gallons  of  water  from  pool  used 
weekly.     Hence  pool  practically  filled  two  and  one-half  times  per  week. 
Attendance :    1,300  men  per  week. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.    Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 
Agar  37°  C.     Gelatin  20°  C.      Colon  Bacilli 
per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water   (control)    5  65  0 

Pool  water  before  use 43  42  0 

After  12  hours'  use  by  250  men..  200  50,000  Irregular 

A.  M.  48  hours'  use  by  500  men..  120  360  0 

P.  M.  60  hours'  use  by     700  men..  700  5,000  Irregular 

A.  M.  98  hours'  use  by  1,300  men..  130  340  Irregular 

Discussion:  The  good  results  obtained  are  due  to  refiltration  and  dilu- 
tion. The  use  of  a  disinfectant,  however,  would  eliminate  the  necessity  for 
emptying  the  pool  at  the  end  of  each  week,  and  also  improve  the  condition  of 
the  water. 

POOL  10 

Water:     Double  filtered  city  water.     Capacity  32,500  gallons. 

Management  of  water:  Pool  scrubbed  once  a  week.  Two  feet  of  water 
drawn  off  daily  and  replaced  with  fresh  water.  Equivalent  to  about  two  fill- 
ings a  week. 

Attendance :    250  men  per  week. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.    Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 
Agar  37°  C.    Gelatin  20°  C.     Colon  Bacilli 
per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water   (control)    11  480  0 

Before  use  (from  pool) 4  38  0 

Used    48  hours   by    70  men 310  1,380  0 

Used    60  hours   by  110  men 1,300  20,000  Irregular 

Used  108  hours  by  250  men 1,000  90,000  Bet.  1-10 

Discussion:  Plumbing  should  be  modified  for  refiltration.  Water  was  kept 
comparatively  clear  by  double  filtration. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools 


17 


POOLS   EMPTIED   ONCE  IN   TWO   WEEKS 

POOL  11 
Water:    City,  filtered.     Capacity,  55,000  gallons. 

Management  of  water:    Dilution  water  added  at  night  in  a  quantity  sufficient 
to  account  for  fillings  every  3  days. 

Attendance:    6,000  men  in  two  weeks. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 
Agar  37°  C.     Gelatin  20°  C.      Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water  (control)   5  36  0 

Used  1  hour  by  20  men 30  300  0 

Used  12  hours  by  500  men 700  6,000  Bet.  1-10 

A.  M.  96  hours  by  1,000  men 4,000  44,000  Bet.  1-10 

P.  M.  108  hours  by  1,500  men 2,500  150,000  Bet.  1-10 

A.  M.  210  hours  by  3,500  men 2,600  150,000  Bet.  1-10 

P.  M.  222  hours  by  4,000  men 5,000  170,000  Bet.  1-10 

P.  M.  300  hours  by  6,000  men 1,400  31,800  0 

Sample  from  filter   (control) 8  40  0 

Discussion:     It  is  obvious  that  sanitary  measures  are  necessary  to  correct 
the  needlessly  high  bacterial  counts. 

POOL  12 
Water:     City,  filtered.    Capacity,  90,000  gallons. 

Management  of  water:     Pool  well  filtered,  clear  throughout  use.     Can  be 
arranged  for  three  depths.    Turkish  baths  (usually)  taken  prior  to  use  of  pool. 
Attendance:     530  men  in  two  weeks. 


Bacteriological   Examination 
A.     Quantitative  Analysis 


Tap  water  (control) 
After  168  hours'  use 
After  180  hours'  use 
After  360  hours'  use 
After  372  hours'  use 
After  384  hours'  use 
After  396  hours'  use 
After  408  hours'  use 
After  420  hours'  use 

Discussion:  The  reasons  for  this  sanitary  condition  are:  (1)  The  body  of 
water  is  large  as  compared  with  the  attendance;  (2)  enough  dilution  water  is 
added  to  account  for  a  little  less  than  one  refilling;  (3)  most  of  the  bathers 
had  taken  Turkish  baths  prior  to  entering  the  water. 


per  c.c. 

5 

by  180  men. . . 

150 

by  200  men . . . 

1,000 

by  450  men. . . 

200 

by  480  men . . . 

200 

by  480  men . . . 

180 

by  500  men. . . 

300 

by  500  men . . . 

180 

by  530  men. . . 

500 

B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

latin  20°  C. 

Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c. 

per  c.c. 

254 

0 

350 

0 

10,000 

Bet.  1-10 

6,000 

0 

1,000 

0 

230 

0 

3.000 

0 

300 

Bet.  1-10 

2,000 

Bet.  1-10 

18  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

pool  13 

Water:     City  filtered,  refiltered.     Capacity,  33,000  gallons. 
Management  of  water:    Water  was  kept  clear  by  refiltration.    Pool  scrubbed 
every  2  weeks. 

Attendance:     Variable;  700  attended  during  period  of  examination. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.    Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.               per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water  (control) 150                      690  0 

After    72  hours' use  by  350  men...             200                 25,000  0 

After  108  hours'  use  by  700  men. . .          6,000                 44,000  Bet.  1-10 

Summary 
Pools  that  were  filled  once  in  two  weeks  showed  varying  sanitary  conditions, 
depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  attendance,  the  amount  of  water  offered  per 
capita,  the  amount  of  dilution  water,  and  the  preliminary  baths  taken  by  the 
patrons.  Undoubtedly  the  use  of  chlorid  of  lime,  and  of  refiltration  would 
improve  these  plants.    The  adoption  of  this  technic  is  urged. 

III.   POOLS  OPEN  TO  PUBLIC 

Pools  Nos.  14,  15  and  16  are  open  to  the  general  public  with  no 
admission  fee  and  no  restriction,  except  good  behavior.  They  are 
attended  generally  by  a  fairly  good  class  of  people.  In  the  after- 
noons, mainly  high  school  boys  or  girls  bathe  there;  in  the  evenings, 
men  or  women.  No  instruction  at  public  expense  is  attempted;  the 
authorities  merely  open  them  and  try  to  keep  them  clean.  Men  and 
women  use  these  pools  on  alternate  days.  Pool  17,  located  in  a  high 
school,  is  also  open  to  the  general  public  in  the  evenings.  During  the 
day,  however,  it  is  maintained  as  a  part  of  the  regular  instruction  in 
physical  training  for  the  pupils. 

•    pool  14 

Water:     City,  filtered.     Capacity,  83,000  gallons.     Filled  every  2  days. 

Management  of  water:  Scrubbed  four  times  a  week.  Women  use  the  pool 
when  first  filled  because  of  the  ease  with  which  gonorrhea  may  be  contracted 
by  women  in  polluted  water.  Cost  of  maintenance'3  $29,789.49  per  annum, 
exclusive  of  the  cost  of  water.     Bathers  must  be  clothed. 

Attendance:     200  women,  1,600  men,  daily. 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.  Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water   (control)    12  137  0 

After  use  by  202  women 2,500  15,000  Bet.  1-100 

After  use  by  1,600  men : .       400,000  600,000  Bet.  10-10Q 

73.  Rept.  Borough  Pres.  of  Manhattan  on  Pub.  Baths,  New  York  City,  1912. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools 


19 


POOL  15 

Water:    City,  filtered.     Capacity,  75,000  gallons.     Filled  three  times  a  week. 

Management  of  water:  Women  use  pool  when  first  filled.  Pool  scrubbed 
three  times  a  week.  Cost  of  operation,  exclusive  of  cost  of  water,  $29,170.82. 
Patrons  must  wear  apparel  in  water. 

Attendance:     Women,  300  daily;  men,  600  daily. 


Bacteriological   Examination 
A.     Quantitative  Analysis 

Agar  37° 
per  c.c. 

Tap  water   (control)    10 

Filtered  water 9 

Used     1  hour    by    20  women  50 

Used  15  hours  by  300  women    ....  3,000 

Used  38  hours  by  600  men   20,000 


Gelatin  20°  C. 

B.  Qualitative 
Analysis  for 
Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c. 

280 

300 

7,000 

50,000 

60,000 

per  c.c. 

0 

0 
Irregular 
Bet.  1-10 
Bet.  1-10 

POOL  16 
Capacity,  90,000  gallons. 


Refilled  three  times  per 


Water:    City,  unfiltered. 
week. 

Management  of  water:  Same  as  previous  pool,  and  in  addition  a  "large 
handful"  of  chlorid  of  lime  is  added  to  water.  The  amount  added  is  insuf- 
ficient for  disinfection.  Wearing  of  apparel  in  water  discouraged,  though 
permitted. 

Attendance:     200  women  and  500  men  daily. 


Bacteriological   Examination 
A.    Quantitative  Analysis 


Tap  water  (control)   

After  13  hours'  use  by  200  women 

After  48  hours'  use  by  200  women 

plus  500  men 


Agar  37°  C. 
per  c.c. 
20 
25,000 

85,000 


Gelatin  20° 
per  c.c. 
80 
31,000 

160,000 


B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c. 

0 

0 

Bet.  1-10 


The  practice  of  wearing  clothing  in  the  water  is  discouraged  here,  but 
insisted  upon  in  Pools  14,  15.  It  would  seem  desirable  for  the  practice  in 
public  pools  to  become  standard.  If  clothing  must  be  worn,  it  should  be 
supplied  by  the  authorities,  with  cleanliness  guaranteed.  The  apparel  worn  by 
bathers  frequently  dyes  the  water.  The  expense  of  furnishing  apparel  could 
be  eliminated  by  naked  bathing  for  men.  All  the  association,  high-school,  and 
collegiate  pools  maintain  this  practice  with  no  noticeable  ill  effects. 

The  three  pools  discussed  above  (Nos.  14,  15  and  16,)  are  very  similar  in 
equipment,  operation  and  sanitary  condition.  They  fall  into  the  same  category 
because  they  are  maintained  at  public  expense,  and  their  use  is  free  of  charge. 
No  satisfactory  methods  for  safeguarding  the  health  of  the  patrons  are 
employed  and  the  use  of  chlorid  of  lime  has  been  suggested,  with  the  hope  that 
this  will  effectively  solve  the  problem. 


20  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

These  baths  have  been  established  to  encourage  swimming,  as  the  death  rate 
from  accidental  drowning  is  very  high.  Along  the  shores  in  fine  weather,  hun- 
dreds of  persons,  many  nude,  bathe  in  sewer-polluted  water,  risking  personal 
health  and  safety.  To  offset  this,  the  authorities  established  the  free  floating 
baths  described  later  and  the  indoor  plunges.  The  purpose  of  these  baths  and 
plunges,  in  addition  to  correcting  the  unsightly  appearance  of  promiscuous  and 
unlawful  bathing  from  the  docks,  was  to  teach  swimming  to  those  anxious  to 
learn.  No  instruction  in  swimming  is  given,  however,  and  the  very  laudable 
purpose  for  which  they  were  established  has  been  defeated. 

To  correct  this  condition,  a  complete  change  in  the  administrative  policy 
of  these  pools  would  be  necessary.  Our  recommendations  in  this  regard  are : 
Instead  of  allowing  the  promiscuous  use  of  these  baths  to  any  one,  registration 
should  be  required,  and  a  fee  charged.  At  the  time  of  application,  the  pros- 
pective pupil  should  be  subjected  to  an  examination  by  a  physician  of  the 
Department  of  Health.  If  registration  times  were  properly  arranged  in  a  sea- 
son of  the  year  when  the  physicians  assigned  by  the  Board  of  Health  to  examine 
school  children  were  not  busy,  as  for  example  during  July,  August  and  the 
beginning  of  September,  and  also  several  weeks  throughout  the  year,  these 
examinations  could  be  given  without  incurring  any  additional  expense.  A  set 
of  rules  should  be  given  each  applicant,  covering  the  important  items  of  sanitary 
conduct  in  the  water,  e.  g.,  the  importance  of  showering  before  and  after  bath- 
ing, and  the  importance  of  taking  a  sitz  shower  with  soap  (see  summary),  the 
danger  from  expectorating  into  the  water,  the  importance  of  emptying  the  blad- 
der before  entering  the  pool,  etc.  Violation  of  these  rules  should  result  in 
expulsion,  and  forfeiture  of  the  registration  fee. 

Each  pupil  should  be  assigned  a  convenient  hour,  and  instruction  in  swim- 
ming should  then  be  given.  If,  and  upon  good  attendance,  the  pupil  has  learned 
to  swim,  his  registration  fee  should  be  returned.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he 
attends  irregularly,  or  fails  to  learn  to  swim  after  a  stated  length  of  time,  there 
should  be  additional  registration,  and  an  additional  fee  charged.  Separate  hours 
should  be  set  aside  for  all  persons  who  can  swim,  registration  should  be  required, 
but  no  fee  charged.  It  is  felt  that  at  least  two  important  purposes  would  be 
accomplished  by  this  plan:  (1)  persons  would  be  taught  to  swim,  and  others 
would  be  encouraged  to  attend  who  otherwise  would  never  think  of  doing  so; 
(2)  some  restriction  on  the  admission  of  diseased  persons  to  the  pool  would 
result.  Many  persons  who  are  now  afraid  to  enter  the  water,  for  fear  of  con- 
tamination, would  be  encouraged  to  do  so  by  this  plan. 

POOL  17 

This  pool  presents  a  problem  unique  in  itself,  and  therefore  needs  separate 
treatment.  It  is  patronized  during  the  day  by  high  school  boys,  being  an 
integral  part  of  their  instruction  in  physical  training;  during  the  evening  by 
the  male  public,  over  16  years  of  age,  without  any  restriction  in,  or  any  charge 
for  its  use. 

Water:    City,  not  filtered.     Capacity,  24,500  gallons. 
Management  of  water:    Chlorid  of  lime  added  to  water.1 

1.  (This  pool  was  examined  at  a  time  when  chlorid  of  lime  was  not  added.  The  hacterial 
counts  ranged  above  100,000  per  c.c.  Between  10-100  colon  bacilli  per  c.c.  were  usually 
present). 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  21 

Bacteriological   Examination 

A.     Quantitative  Analysis  B.  Qualitative 

Analysis  for 

Agar  37°  C.  Gelatin  20°  C.  Colon  Bacilli 

per  c.c.  per  c.c.  per  c.c. 

Tap  water    (control) 12  35  0 

After  12  hours'  use  by     400  persons          1,000  20,000  Bet.  1-10 

After  48  hours'  use  by     800  persons          5,000  75,000  Bet.  1-10 

After  72  hours'  use  by  1,200  persons            800  35,000  Bet.  1-10 

Discussion:  This  pool,  even  with  the  hypochlorite  treatment,  was  not  in  satis- 
factory condition ;  the  counts  tho  ordinarily  not  high,  reached  163,360  per  c.c. 
The  technic  of  adding  chlorin  was  poor  and  should  be  modified  till  a  proper  sani- 
tary condition  is  obtained.  The  proper  times  to  add  the  chlorid  of  lime  are 
the  following:  In  the  evenings,  after  use  by  the  general  public,  during  lunch 
time,  when  no  one  uses  the  pool,  and  at  4  p.  m.  when  the  high  school  students 
are  dismissed.  The  pool  is  not  used  between  4 :00  p.  m.  and  7 :30  p.  m.,  thus 
affording  an  excellent  opportunity  for  chemical  treatment.  The  treatment 
should  be  controlled  by  appropriate  tests,  as  described  below,  and  would  result 
in  a  much  better  condition  of  the  water. 

The  use  of  the  pool  in  the  evening  by  the  general  public  is  subject  to  the 
same  objections  as  described  for  pools  Nos.  14,  15  and  16.  No  instruction  in 
swimming  is  given,  and  no  supervision  of  any  kind  to  safeguard  the  health  of 
the  bathers  is  maintained.  The  attendance  in  the  evening  at  the  time  of  the 
examination  did  not  exceed  thirty,  a  number  that  could  easily  have  been 
accommodated  by  Pool  14,  which  is  in  the  vicinity.  Radical  change  is  here 
necessary  to  give  a  fair  return  to  the  city  for  the  money  expended,  and  to 
safeguard  the  health  of  high  school  boys.  If  this  pool  is  to  be  continued  and 
used,  certain  changes  in  administration  and  equipment  are  necessary.  The 
use  of  the  pool  in  the  evening  should  be  organized  somewhat  after  the  plan 
suggested  for  the  previous  three.  Then  again  the  pool  should  be  deepened, 
as  it  is  now  so  shallow  that  diving  is  dangerous.  This  could  be  done  by  build- 
ing up  the  sides  and  utilizing  the  reconstruction  for  adding  a  combination  life- 
rail  and  scum  gutter,  which  is  now  absent.  This  would  increase  the  cubic 
capacity  of  the  pool,  now  insufficient.  A  filtering  plant  should  be  installed  and 
so  arranged  that  the  water  could  be  recirculated  and  refiltered  in  about  six 
hours.  The  raising  of  the  sides  would  not  be  difficult,  and  a  ledge  could  be 
made  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  the  swimmers  to  stand  upon  it  without  danger. 
These  recommendations  are  somewhat  costly,  but  if  carried  out  would  reha- 
bilitate an  otherwise  inadequate  plant. 

IV.    OUTDOOR   FLOATING   BATHS    OF   THE    CITY   OF    NEW    YORK 

The  city  of  New  York  operates  about  15  free  floating  baths,  sta- 
tioned during  the  summer  at  docks  as  far  away  from  sewer  outlets 
as  possible.  They  are  95  feet  long,  and  60  feet  wide,  and  are  floated 
on  8  pontoons,  four  on  each  side.  The  peripheral  parts  of  the  pool 
and  a  balcony  above  are  used  for  dressing  rooms.  The  pool  itself  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  2.5  feet  deep  for  children,  and  the  other 
4.5  feet  deep  for  the  adults.    The  average  cost  of  construction  of  these 


22  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

baths,  twenty  years  ago,  was  about  $12,000,  and  their  cost  of  main- 
tenance for  the  three  months  of  their  use  averages  $3,848. 56.74 

Observations  as  to  their  sanitary  condition  have  been  repeatedly  made  by 
the  writer  since  1910.  Bacteriological  tests  were  made  in  1911,  but  since  that 
time  the  authorities  have  become  aware  of  the  polluted  condition  of  the  baths, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  in  the  near  future  some  provision  for  their  purification 
will  be  made. 

The  bacterial  counts  on  gelatin  ranged  between  500,000-1,000,000  per  c.c. ; 
100  colon  bacilli  per  c.c.  were  always  obtainable  and  the  presence  of  free  float- 
ing feces  was  frequently  observed.  Other  debris  from  the  sewers  and  from 
the  many  passenger  steamers  that  pass  up  and  down  the  Hudson  and  East 
Rivers  can  be  found  in  these  baths,  but  obvious  pollution  does  not  interfere 
with  the  patronage  of  the  general  public.  The  Metropolitan  Sewage  Commis- 
sion75 has  pointed  out  clearly  their  unsanitary  condition  and  recommends  their 
abolition,  but  has  not,  unfortunately,  made  any  recommendation  for  substitutes. 
"Bathing  in  free  floating  bathing  establishments  may  be  refreshing,  and  may 
give  pleasure  to  the  bathers,  some  of  whom  thus  learn  to  swim,  but  the  baths 
have  little  cleansing  value.  The  water  is  unwholesome  and  even  dangerous  for 
bathing  purposes.  Floating  particles  of  sewage  enter  many  of  the  pools,  even 
when  situated  500  feet  or  more  from  a  sewer  outlet.  When  bathing,  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  avoid  accidentally  taking  some  of  the  water  into  the  mouth 
and  nasal  passages,  and  having  it  come  in  contact  with  the  mucuous  membrane 
of  the  eye.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  bathing  in  such  waters  is  a  frequent 
source  of  infection.  ...  As  soon  as  possible  the  maintenance  of  free  float- 
ing bath  establishments  should  be  discontinued."70 

At  the  Baltimore  convention  on  public  baths  when  New  York's  floating 
baths  were  discussed,  their  remodeling  into  baths,  using  city  (Croton)  water, 
was  urged.  The  cost  of  making  the  tanks  water-tight  and  using  water  from 
the  city  main  would  be  very  great,  and  considering  that  such  bathing  establish- 
ments can  be  used  only  a  few  months  in  the  year  this  expense  seems  unwar- 
ranted. The  only  excuse  for  floating  baths,  in  place  of  the  ultimately  more 
economical  indoor  pools,  is  the  prohibitive  cost  of  land  in  the  crowded  districts 
of  New  York,  where  such  baths  are  needed.  Floating  baths,  if  they  must  be 
used,  should  be  made  water  tight,  and  the  water  from  the  river  pumped  in 
and  filtered.  In  conjunction  with  the  filtration,  which  should  be  effective  in 
removing  suspended  matter,  bleaching  powder  should  be  added  to  the  water 
in  an  amount  controlled  by  tests  and  sufficient  to  destroy  all  bacteria  not  retained 
by  the  filters. 

Inasmuch  as  such  baths  are  available  only  for  a  short  time  of  the  year,  and 
as  the  expense  of  their  remodeling  would  be  great,  it  would  seem  that  the 
establishment  of  public  indoor  pools  on  the  end  of  the  recreation  piers  would 
be  ultimately  more  economical.  It  is  the  present  policy  of  New  York  to 
increase  its  recreation  facilities,  and  the  erection  of  more  public  piers,  with 
pools  at  one  end,  would  not  be  difficult.  These  pools  could  form  a  regular  part 
of  the  recreation  equipment,  and  water  from  the  river  could  be  pumped  into 
them,  filtered,  purified  by  chlorid  of  lime,  and  heated  during  winter,  so  that 
their  use  might  become  permanent.    River  water77  should  be  used,  largely  because 

74.  Rept.  of  Borough  President  of  Manhattan  on  Public  Baths,  New  York  City,  1912,  p.  10. 

75.  Rept.  of  Metropolitan  Sewage  Com.,  New  York  City,  1908-10. 

76.  Rept.  of  Metropolitan  Sewage  Com.,  New  York  City,  1910,  p.  82. 

77.  With  the  opening  of  the  new  Catskill  aqueduct,  New  York  City  will  be  supplied  with 
a  superabundance  of  water.  It  will  be  cheaper  and  better  at  that  time  to  use  city  water  and 
add  sea-salt  to  any  desired  concentration.  Prof.  W.  H.  Park  suggested  this  and  also  that 
the  cost  of  sea-salt  would  be  far  less  than  that  of  chlorid  of  lime. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  23 

of  economy.  Some  writers,  however,  believe  that  salt  baths  are  preferred  by 
the  people,  which  fact,  together  with  the  previous  one,  forms  sufficient  argu- 
ments for  the  use  of  river  versus  Croton  water. 

V.    MIKVEH   PLUNGES  OF  THE  LOWER  EAST  SIDE   OF   NEW  YORK 

The  attention  of  the  writer  was  directed  to  these  pools  by  H.  F.  J. 
Porter,  M.  E.  industrial  engineer,  who  believed  that  additional  inves- 
tigation and  publicity  would  be  productive  of  much  good.  All  the 
data  collected  and  used  by  him  in  the  preparation  of  a  comprehensive 
paper  on  this  subject  were  turned  over  to  the  writer  and  used  as  a 
comparison  and  control  with  the  data  reported  in  the  table  below. 

These  pools  are  patronized  by  the  Jewish  people  of  the  lower  East 
Side  of  New  York  City.  At  certain  times  in  the  year  (e.  g.  the  Pass- 
over) their  use  is  compelled  for  both  men  and  women.  Religious  law, 
for  example,  forces  the  women  to  use  these  pools  within  seven  days 
after  menstruation.  The  Hebrew  law78  is  very  strict,  stating  that  after 
thorough  cleansing,  the  person  should  immerse  himself  or  herself  in 
a  purified  plunge  filled  with  uncontaminated  water,  i.e.,  rain  water, 
ice-water,  or  water  that  had  not  been  polluted  by  human  beings,  and 
that  this  plunge  should  contain  at  least  three  cubic  yards  of  water.79 
These  excellent  laws  are  not  carried  out.  The  men  and  women  in  their 
respective  pools  wash  themselves  in  polluted  water,  in  plunges  with 
about  200  cubic  feet  capacities,  and  which  are  sometimes  used  by  300 
different  individuals  without  change  of  water.  In  connection  with 
some  of  these  Mikvehs  there  are  either  tubs  or  shower-baths,  but 
neither  of  these  is  frequently  patronized  because  of  an  additional 
charge  of  five  cents  for  use.  Hence  the  same  water  through  constant 
use  becomes  contaminated  and  in  no  sense  fulfils  the  requirements 
of  the  Biblical  law. 

Number  of  Mikvehs  having  between 

100-       1,000  bacteria  per  c.c 2* 

1,000-     10,000  bacteria  per  c.c 7 

10,000-     50,000  bacteria  per  c.c 4 

50,000-    100,000  bacteria  per  c.c 3 

100,000-   200,000  bacteria  per  c.c 7 

200,000-    500,000  bacteria  per  c.c 3 

500,000-1,000,000  bacteria  per  c.c 4 

1,000,000-  or  over  bacteria  per  c.c 11 

Total  plunges  examined   41 

78.  Bk.  3,  Ch.  1,  p.  11  of  Levit. 

79.  Biblical  data  furnished  me  through  the  courtesy  of  Rabbi  Ch.  Hirschensohn  of  Hoboken, 
New  Jersey. 


24  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

Number  of  Mikvehs  having  between 

0-         0  colon  per  c.c 3* 

0-       10  colon  per  c.c 7 

10-     100  colon  per  c.c b 

100-  1,000  colon  per  c.c 13 

1,000-10,000  colon  per  c.c 11 

10,000-or  more  colon  bacilli  per  c.c 1 

Total    41 

*  Attendance  less  than  3. 

Forty-one  of  these  baths  were  examined  in  23  different  buildings.80  There 
are  usually,  in  one  building,  several  plunges  containing  water  at  different  tem- 
peratures. The  bathers  go  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  temperatures  where 
they  remain  for  several  minutes  till  they  have  sweated  thoroughly,  thus  remov- 
ing most  of  the  dirt.  When  sweating-rooms  are  provided,  bathers  often  pre- 
fer to  use  them  in  place  of  the  Mikvehs.  The  temperatures  of  these  plunges 
range  from  18°-50°  C.  After  use  the  water  is  thick,  slimy,  and  unpleasantly 
odorous.  The  average  attendance  varies,  in  several  instances  80-100  persons 
bathed  in  200  cubic  feet  of  water,  while  in  one  instance  300  persons  used  a 
slightly  larger  pool. 

There  can  be  small  wonder,  therefore,  at  the  very  large  bacterial  findings. 
Counts  on  gelatin  ranged  from  1,000  to  3,000,000  bacteria  per  c.c.  and  counts 
on  agar  were  as  high,  in  fact,  in  one  instance  they  reached  18,144,000  bacteria 
per  c.c.  The  counts  for  colon  bacilli  are  interesting  and  astonishing.  In  the 
instance  where  300  persons  had  used  the  water  the  colon  count  was  10,000 
per  c.c.  The  temperature  of  this  pool  (50°  C.)  was  sufficiently  high  to  con- 
tinuously destroy  colon  bacilli.  The  large  number  were  present  in  spite  of 
this   fact. 

That  these  pools  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  health  of  the  people  using  them 
is  clear.  Radical  measures  to  improve  their  condition  or  to  substitute  other 
means  of  ablution  should  be  immediate.  This  neighborhood  on  the  lower  East 
Side  is  extremely  crowded,  and  the  tenements  are  not  equipped  with  bath-tubs. 
The  people  of  these  districts,  therefore,  must  depend  either  upon  the  very  few 
public  baths   established  in  these  neighborhoods  or  these  unsanitary  Mikvehs. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  these  Mikvehs  do  not  comply  with  the  Mosaic  Laws, 
their  abolition  would  be  strongly  opposed  by  the  Jewish  people  who  bathe  there. 
The  writer  believes  that  the  following  recommendations  could  be  made  which 
would  insure  cleanliness  and  at  the  same  time  permit  the  exercise  of  the 
required  religious  ritual : 

1.  The  basements  of  public  schools  could  be  modified  into  public  shower- 
bath  rooms.  The  authorities  of  many  foreign  cities  finding  this  method  suc- 
cessful have  encouraged  the  use  of  these  baths  not  only  as  a  regular  part  of 
the  elementary  school  instruction,  but  also  as  a  means  of  bathing  for  the  gen- 
eral public.  Such  baths  have  been  established  in  several  public  schools  in  New 
York  City,  but  the  use  of  these  has  been  restricted  to  students.  Shower-baths 
for  adults  would  be  in  beneficial  competition  with  the  Mikvehs,  especially  if  the 
baths  were  free  of  charge.  That  this  plan  is  feasible  and  economical  is  unques- 
tionable.   It  is  preferable  to  the  erection  of  new  buildings  because  of  the  high 

80.  An  inspector  of  the  Department  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York  was  assigned  by 
courtesy   of  the  Commissioner  to  accompany   us.     Mr.   Kranz  acted  as  interpreter. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  25 

cost  of  land,  the  cost  of  erection,  and  the  duplication  of  running  expenses,  such 
as  the  salaries  for  janitors,  cleaners,  etc.  The  basements  of  public  schools  are 
at  present  frequently  used  as  playgrounds  for  which  purpose  the  roof  would 
be  far  superior.  The  use  of  the  basements  or  parts  of  the  basements,  in  the 
evenings,  for  shower-bath  rooms  would  be  a  great  benefit  to  the  people  of  these 
crowded  districts  and  would  reduce  the  cost  of  public  bath  '. 

2.  Jewish  charities  should  be  encouraged  to  establish  sanitary  bathing  places 
free  of  charge,  either  in  connection  with  Synagogues  or  elsewhere. 

3.  Settlements  in  the  vicinity  should  make  an  effort  to  install  showers  for 
the  adults  of  the  neighborhood. 

4.  The  authorities  of  New  York  City  should  pass  sanitary  regulations  with 
which  the  proprietors  of  these  establishments  should  comply  in  order  to  have 
their  licenses  renewed.  Because  a  fee  is  charged  these  baths  are  licensed  by 
the  city,  and  through  this  licensing  power  the  city  can  compel  the  enforcement 
of  sanitary  laws.     Such  laws  should  include  the  following  requirements : 

A.  All  Mikveh  plunges  should  be  abolished,  because  of  their  unsanitary  and 
polluted  condition.  Mikvehs  consisting  of  individual  tubs  might  be  substituted 
in  their  place. 

B.  Shower-bath  establishments,  with  or  without  sweat-rooms,  because  of 
their  cleaner  nature,  should  be  approved.  The  reduction  of  their  license  fee 
might  encourage  their  increase. 

C.  All  individual  tubs  should  be  cleansed  after  each  bath.  Failure  to  observe 
this  precaution  should  cause  forfeiture  of  license. 

SUMMARY    AND     CONCLUSIONS 

The  literature  on  swimming  pools  shows  that  a  number  of  maladies 
— infections  of  the  eye  and  ear,  gonorrhea,  and  intestinal  diseases — 
may  be  transmitted  through  the  water  in  the  pools.  Since  typhoid  fever 
is  endemic  in  New  York  City,  the  danger  of  a  typhoid  carrier  con- 
taminating a  pool  is  not  remote.  Therefore  an  accurate  determination 
of  contamination  with  intestinal  bacteria  is  one  of  the  most  important 
indices  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  a  swimming  pool. 

The  present  investigation  has  included  examinations  of  five  distinct 
types  of  swimming  pools,  all  of  which  will  be  briefly  discussed  below. 

I.  Collegiate  pools  in  the  city  of  New  York  are  in  very  good  con- 
dition, owing  to  the  careful  supervision  of  the  plants  by  the  professors 
in  charge,  the  knowledge  of  sanitation  of  the  swimming  pool  possessed 
by  its  patrons,  and  finally  because  of  the  enforcement  of  the  sanitary 
regulations  by  swimming  teachers. 

II.  Association  pools  were  divided  into  groups  according  to  the 
number  of  weekly  refillings.  Those  that  were  emptied  daily  were  in 
good  condition.  The  value  of  daily  filling,  however,  is  inferior,  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view,  to  refiltration  and  chlorination,  and  from 
an  economic  point  of  view,  too  costly.  The  pool  emptied  three  times 
a  week  was  in  poor  sanitary  condition  on  the  second  day  of  use. 


26  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

Chlorin  should  be  added  daily.  The  installation  of  a  filter  at  a  cost 
of  $500  would  be  an  eventual  economy. 

In  the  pool  emptied  twice  a  week  with  refiltration  practiced  the 
use  of  a  disinfectant  was  necessary.  Refiltration  unaided  by  chlorina- 
tion  is  not  a  satisfactory  method  for  the  sanitation  of  swimming  pools. 

Among  the  pools  emptied  once  a  week,  Nos.  8  and  10  needed  refil- 
tration and  chlorination.  Pool  9,  in  which  refiltration  was  prac- 
ticed and  considerable  dilution  water  added,  was  located  on  the  top 
floor  of  the  building.  The  water  used  to  flush  toilets  and  urinals  and 
for  all  other  waste  purposes  was  subtracted  from  the  pool  and  fresh 
water  added  in  its  place.  This  plan  deserves  imitation.  The  use  of 
small  amounts  of  chlorin  here  would  put  the  finishing  touches  on  an 
almost  ideal  pool. 

In  the  three  pools  that  were  emptied  every  two  weeks,  Pool  11 
could  have  its  plumbing  modified  and  refiltration  installed  at  an 
expense  of  $70;  the  excellent  condition  of  Pool  12  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  a  large  amount  of  water  was  used  for  a  relatively  small 
attendance  and  also  members  always  took  a  careful  preliminary  bath 
and  frequently  Turkish  baths;  Pool  13,  though  maintaining  a  clear 
water  by  refiltration,  required  disinfection,  an  additional  proof  that 
refiltration  unaided  is  not  a  sufficient  means  of  maintaining  a  sanitary 
condition  of  the  water. 

III.  Public  pools  in  New  York  city  are  elaborately  equipped  and 
generously  operated,  but  because  of  their  large  and  promiscuous 
attendance,  faulty  technic  and  improper  organization,  they  are  possible 
sources  for  the  spread  of  disease. 

A  much  better  condition  of  the  water  could  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  chlorid  of  lime,  the  addition  of  considerable  dilution  water,  and 
frequent  refillings,  or  by  the  combination  of  chlorination  and  refiltra- 
tion. 

These  plants  would  be  of  greater  service  if  they  were  reorganized, 
all  prospective  pupils  registered  and  examined  by  physicians  of  the 
department  of  health,  diseased  persons  barred  from  admission,  and 
instruction  in  swimming  given. 

IV.  An  examination  of  free  floating  baths  in  New  York  city  showed 
the  sanitary  condition  to  be  so  poor  as  to  warrant  their  abolition  or 
immediate  remodeling.  If  remodeled,  they  should  be  enclosed,  made 
water-tight,  and  the  river  water  pumped  through  a  filter  into  them.81 

81.  See   foot-note  76. 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  27 

Inasmuch  as  filtration  would  not  sufficiently  reduce  the  bacterial  pollu- 
tion, the  water  should  be  subsequently  disinfected  with  chlorid  of  lime. 
These  floating  baths  can  be  used  only  a  few  months  in  the  year,  are, 
comparatively  speaking,  inaccessible,  and  are  inferior  in  every  way 
to  the  more  attractive  indoor  plunges  which  can  be  used  the  whole 
year.  The  only  excuse  for  these  establishments  is  the  saving  in  the 
cost  of  land,  which  is  excessive  in  the  crowded  districts  where  they 
are  most  needed.  The  cost  of  constructing  new  indoor  pools  on  the 
ends  of  the  piers  would  be  no  more  than  the  cost  of  remodeling  the 
old  scows  into  water-tight  boats.  This  plan  of  establishing  pools  at 
the  end  of  the  recreation  piers  would  be  feasible  and  economical 
because : 

1.  The  policy  of  the  city  in  pursuing  its  plan  of  recreation,  is  to 
increase  the  number  of  these  piers,  which  are  already  numerous. 

2.  There  would  be  no  extra  cost  of  land,  no  extra  cost  of  janitor- 
ial fees,  and  the  cost  of  remodeling  old  scows  would  be  as  great,  if  not 
greater,  than  the  cost  of  building  model  plunges  on  land. 

3.  The  river  water  in  which  the  people  delight  to  bathe  could  be 
pumped  in  through  a  filter  and  subsequently  disinfected. 

4.  The  instruction  in  swimming  could  be  correlated  with  the  plan 
of  recreation,  and  this  instruction  maintained  the  year  round. 

5.  These  pools  would  cost  less  to  operate  than  the  present  public 
plunges.  Water  could  be  used  more  lavishly,  and  the  pools  operated 
throughout  the  entire  year. 

6.  The  cost  of  berths  (docking  fee)  for  floating  baths  would  be 
saved. 

V.  Mikveh  plunges  in  New  York  city  are  not  sanitary  and  bathing 
in  them  menaces  the  health  of  the  people.  Jewish  people  in  this  vicin- 
ity wish  them  both  for  religion  and  for  cleanliness,  but  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  operated  defeats  these  purposes.  Individual  tubs  or 
Mikvehs  to  be  cleansed  after  each  bath,  should  be  constructed  in  place 
of  plunge  Mikvehs.  Licenses  should  be  granted  by  the  city,  only  after 
inspection  shows  entire  compliance  with  any  new  sanitary  laws 

Inasmuch  as  the  tenements  of  this  vicinity  have  no  bathing  facilities, 
the  basements  of  public  schools  should  be  remodeled  into  shower-bath 
rooms.  Settlements  in  the  district  should  open  shower  rooms  to 
accommodate  the  adult  population  of  the  neighborhood,  and  Jewish 
charities  should  be  urged  to  provide  adequate  accommodations  for  the 


28  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

baths  of  their  people.  Synagogues  should  build  Mikvehs  that  comply 
with  the  sanitary  intent  of  the  old  Mosaic  laws. 

In  view  of  the  large  number  of  plunges  in  New  York  city,  and  of 
their  various  sanitary  conditions,  an  officer  of  the  department  of  health 
should  be  appointed  to  supervise  them.  He  should  examine  their  sani- 
tary conditions,  grant  licenses  and  approve  or  modify  their  methods  of 
operation. 

So  far  we  have  made  many  recommendations  which  we  believe 
would  tend  to  improve  the  conditions  found  in  individual  plants.  We 
wish  to  summarize  finally,  general  recommendations  which  we  feel 
certain  should  be  observed  in  all  pools  whatever  their  location  or 
administration. 

GENERAL    RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  Construction  and  equipment. — Pools  should  be  constructed  of 
smooth  lining  without  crevices  and  should  be  of  as  large  capacity  as 
possible.  There  should  be  no  obstructions  of  any  kind  in  the  water, 
a  combination  of  life-rail  and  overflow  ledge  making  this  possible. 
Where  feasible,  the  plunge  should  be  constructed  on  the  top  floor  of 
the  building  so  that  the  water  used  for  flushing  purposes  could  be 
taken  from  it.  The  fresh  water  usually  employed  for  this  purpose 
should  be  added  to  the  pool  instead.  Each  establishment  should  be 
provided  with  adequate  shower  baths  and  convenient  dressing  rooms 
and  toilets. 

2.  Source  of  water  supply. — The  water  used  in  swimming  pools 
should  be  pure.  Where  this  is  not  possible  it  should  be  thoroughly 
purified  before  use  by  the  methods  indicated. 

3.  Management  of  the  water. — The  water  should  be  thoroughly 
filtered  before  passing  into  the  tank,  so  that  the  opacity  of  the  water 
could  not  obscure  a  submerged  person.  The  water  should  be  changed 
frequently,  and  as  much  dilution  water  added  as  possible.  These  two 
procedures  in  themselves,  however,  are  of  little  importance  if  refiltra- 
tion  and  chemical  disinfection  are  used. 

Re  filtration  is  an  efficient  and  economical  method  of  keeping  water 
clear  during  protracted  use. 

4.  Chemical  disinfection. — Calcium  hypochlorite,  used  in  amounts 
controlled  by  appropriate  tests,  has  been  shown  to  be  efficient  for  the 
disinfection  of  swimming  pool  water,  and  its  application  to  the  water, 
in  conjunction  with  re  filtration  is  urged  as  a  most  effective  method  of 


Sanitation  of  Swimming  Pools  29 

pool  sanitation.  There  are  two  simple  ways  of  adding  the  chemical  to 
the  water:  (1)  Small  cheese-cloth  bags  containing  the  hypochlorite 
may  be  strung  along  a  pole  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  across  the 
pool,  and  then  dragged  back  and  forth  till  the  contents  are  dissolved. 
At  the  end  of  a  half  hour,  the  amount  of  chlorin  remaining  in  the 
water  should  be  measured  (as  previously  described)  by  the  man  in 
charge.  In  the  event  of  too  much  chlorin  being  added,  the  water  of 
the  pool  might  be  diluted  by  sending  in  a  stream  of  fresh  warm  filtered 
water.  If  too  little  hypochlorite  has  been  added,  the  process  of  treat- 
ment should  be  repeated.  (2)  If  the  pool  is  to  be  subjected  to  refiltra- 
tion  the  above  procedure  could  be  modified  and  simplified;  instead  of 
treating  the  pool  by  means  of  cheese-cloth  bags,  a  small  mixing  and 
feeding  chamber  could  be  made  and  attached  to  the  intake  pipe,  and 
the  water  after  refiltration,  continuously  treated  with  hypochlorite. 
The  question82  arises  whether  or  not  the  slow  gradual  addition  of  the 
chemical  is  as  efficient  as  is  the  rapid  periodic  method.  With  the 
slow  method,  the  concentration  of  the  hypochlorite  is  never  great, 
while  with  the  rapid,  the  sudden  increase  of  the  chemical  concentra- 
tion is  sufficient  to  cause  rapid  bacterial  destruction.  When  the  chem- 
ical is  added  slowly,  however,  the  time  of  its  contact  with  the  bacteria 
is  accordingly  prolonged,  and  this  explains  the  equality  in  the  efficiency 
of  both  methods. 

Comparing  pools  where  one  or  the  other  method  is  employed  we 
find  that  the  slow  gradual  addition  of  the  chemical  seems  to  be  superior. 
This  latter  method  also,  however,  should  be  controlled  by  tests.  The 
attendant  in  charge,  therefore,  should  take  samples  for  examination; 
the  amount  of  chlorin  in  the  water  will  indicate  to  him  its  approximate 
purity,  and  should  there  be  any  unusual  deviation  from  the  reaction 
described  below,  it  can  easily  be  corrected.  This  method  of  using 
refiltration  and  chlorination  appears  to  the  writer  to  be  the  better,  for 
the  following  reasons :  ( 1 )  the  clarity  of  the  water  throughout  use 
would  be  maintained,  and  its  sanitary  condition  improved;  (2)  the 
water  could  be  used  for  several  weeks,  with  an  elimination  of  the 
necessity  for  cleansing  the  floor  and  sides  of  the  pool,  at  the  same  time 
cutting  down  the  great  waste  of  water,  and  the  amount  of  coal  used 
for  heating  purposes. 

A  simple  method  for  testing  the  amount  of  chlorin  in  water  is  as 
follows :   To  a  liter  of  water  in  a  flask,  held  over  a  white  tile,  should 

82.  This  question  was  suggested  to  Professor  Park. 


30  Wallace  A.  Manheimer 

be  added  a  mixture  containing  a  crystal  of  iodid  of  potassium,  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  starch.83  The  proper  end 
reaction  to  be  obtained  is  a  violet  blue;  if  a  darker  color  is  obtained, 
too  much  chlorin  is  present,  if  a  lighter,  not  enough  is  present.84 

After  emptying  the  pool,  its  floors  and  sides  should  be  washed 
with  antiseptics  (chlorid  of  lime,  formalin,  etc.),  as  pools  not  employ- 
ing this  precaution  are  frequently  polluted  prior  to  use. 

5.  Administration. — Students  and  patrons  should  be  subjected  to 
physical  examinations  before  admission  to  the  plunge,  and  all  diseased 
persons  excluded.  A  set  of  rules  should  be  given  covering  the  impor- 
tant items  of  sanitary  conduct  in  the  water,  e.g.,  the  importance  of 
showering  before  and  after  bathing,  the  importance  of  taking  sitz- 
showers85  with  soap,  of  abstaining  from  expectorating  into  the  water, 
the  importance  of  emptying  the  bladder  before  entering  the  pool,  etc. 
Patrons  and  students  should  be  compelled  either  to  bathe  nude,  or  to 
use  clothing  the  cleanliness  of  which  has  been  approved  by  the  director. 

In  a  plant  properly  managed  the  filters  during  use  should  be  fre- 
quently reversed,  thus  washing  the  accumulated  dirt  into  the  sewer. 
When  filling  the  pool,  reversing  every  hour  is  usually  found  necessary. 
When  refiltering  the  water  from  the  pool,  the  reversing  at  least  twice 
a  day  is  necessary.  The  workmen  in  charge  of  the  filtering  plant  and 
those  employed  to  clean  the  pool,  should  be  carefully  supervised. 

The  writer  wishes  to  express  his  gratitude  to  both  Dr.  Hans  Zinsser  and 
Dr.  Augustus  B.  Wadsworth,  for  the  material  aid  given  him  in  the  preparation 
of  this  paper. 

83.  The  iodo-starch  reaction  is  sufficiently  delicate  to  indicate  the  presence  of  one  part 
of  chlorin  in  ten  million  parts  of  water. 

84.  Jour.  Roy.  San.  Inst.,  1910,  31,  p.  281. 

85.  The  showers  taken  by  swimmers,  prior  to  entering  a  pool,  are  hardly  sufficient  to  wash 
from  their  bodies  the  harmless  saprophytes  that  are  on  their  skin,  and  some  method  of 
washing  the  perineal  regions  should  be  employed.  A  simple  perforated  ring  through  which 
water  could  be  made  to  flow  or  which  would  cause  water  to  flow  automatically  when  pressure 
is  exerted  on  the  ring  might  be  satisfactory.  As  far  as  the  writer  knows,  no  arrangement 
of   this  kind   has  been   devised. 


VITA 

Wallace  A.  Manheimer,  born  New  York  City,  February  13, 
1887;  graduated  College  of  City  of  New  York,  1908,  with  the 
degree  of  B.S.  and  Columbia  University,  1912*  with  the 
degree  of  A.M. ;  author  of  "A  Study  of  the  Sanitary  Condi- 
tions of  Indoor  Swimming  Pools,"  American  Physical  Edu- 
cation Review,  December,  1912. 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

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rangement with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 


DATE  BORROWED 


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RA.606  M51 

Manheimer 
Studies  on  the  sanitation  of  swim- 


